Ferns Belong To Which Phylum

Class of vascular plants

Ferns Temporal range: Centre Devonian[one]—Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N
Fern diversity[3]
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Sectionalization:	Polypodiophyta
Form:	Polypodiopsida Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm.
Subclasses[ii]
Extant Equisetidae Marattiidae Ophioglossidae Polypodiidae Extinct †Cladoxylopsida †Zygopteridales †Stauropteridales †Rhacophytales
Synonyms
Monilophyta Polypodiophyta Filicophyta Filices

A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta )^{[ citation needed ]} is a member of a grouping of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and accept neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes except the lycopods, and differ from mosses and other bryophytes by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissues that conduct water and nutrients and in having life cycles in which the branched sporophyte is the ascendant phase. Ferns have complex leaves chosen megaphylls, that are more complex than the microphylls of clubmosses. Most ferns are leptosporangiate ferns. They produce coiled fiddleheads that uncoil and aggrandize into fronds. The group includes about ten,560 known extant species. Ferns are divers here in the broad sense, existence all of the Polypodiopsida, comprising both the leptosporangiate (Polypodiidae) and eusporangiate ferns, the latter group including horsetails, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns.

Ferns beginning appear in the fossil record near 360 million years ago in the late Devonian menses, simply many of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, later on flowering plants came to dominate many environments. The fern Osmunda claytoniana is a paramount example of evolutionary stasis; paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at to the lowest degree 180 million years.

Ferns are not of major economical importance, but some are used for nutrient, medicine, equally biofertilizer, every bit ornamental plants, and for remediating contaminated soil. They accept been the subject of inquiry for their power to remove some chemic pollutants from the atmosphere. Some fern species, such every bit bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) and h2o fern (Azolla filiculoides) are significant weeds worldwide. Some fern genera, such as Azolla, tin can fix nitrogen and make a significant input to the nitrogen nutrition of rice paddies. They also play certain roles in folklore.

Description [edit]

A fern unrolling a young frond

Extant ferns are herbaceous perennials and most lack woody growth.^[4] Their foliage may be deciduous or evergreen,^[v] and some are semi-evergreen depending on the climate.^[vi] Like the sporophytes of seed plants, those of ferns consist of stems, leaves and roots. Ferns differ from seed plants in reproducing by spores. Nonetheless, they also differ from spore-producing bryophytes in that, like seed plants, they are polysporangiophytes, their sporophytes branching and producing many sporangia. Also unlike bryophytes, fern sporophytes are gratuitous-living and only briefly dependent on the maternal gametophyte.

Stems [edit]

Fern stems are often referred to as rhizomes, even though they grow secret simply in some of the species. Epiphytic species and many of the terrestrial ones have above-ground creeping stolons (eastward.g., Polypodiaceae), and many groups have in a higher place-ground cock semi-woody trunks (eastward.g., Cyatheaceae). These can attain up to 20 meters (66 ft) alpine in a few species (e.g., Cyathea brownii on Norfolk Island and Cyathea medullaris in New Zealand).^[7]

Leaves [edit]

The light-green, photosynthetic office of the establish is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, information technology is often referred to as a frond. New leaves typically aggrandize by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a crozier or fiddlehead into fronds.^[8] This uncurling of the leaf is termed circinate vernation. Leaves are divided into ii types: sporophylls and tropophylls. Sporophylls produce spores; tropophylls do not. Fern spores are borne in sporangia which are ordinarily amassed to form sori. In monomorphic ferns, the fertile and sterile leaves looks morphologically the aforementioned, and are photosynthesizing in the aforementioned mode. In hemidimorphic ferns, just a portion of the fertile leaf is dissimilar from the sterile leaves. And in dimorphic ferns, also chosen holomorphic ferns, the two types of leaves are morphologically distinct (frond dimorphism).^[9] The fertile leaves are much narrower than the sterile leaves, and may even have no dark-green tissue at all (e.one thousand., Blechnaceae, Lomariopsidaceae). The anatomy of fern leaves can be anywhere from simple to highly divided, or even indeterminate (e.thou. Gleicheniaceae, Lygodiaceae). The divided forms are pinnate, where the leaf segments are completely separated from ane other, or pinnatifid (partially pinnate), where the leaf segments are still partially connected. When the fronds are branched more than once, it tin besides be a combination of the pinnatifid are pinnate shapes. If the leaf blades are divided twice, the institute has bipinnate fronds, and tripinnate fronds if they branch three times, and all the style to tetra- and pentapinnate fronds.^{[10] [11]} In tree ferns, the primary stalk that connects the leaf to the stalk (known as the stipe), frequently has multiple leaflets. The leafy structures that grow from the stipe are known as pinnae and are frequently once more divided into smaller pinnules.^[12]

Roots [edit]

The underground non-photosynthetic structures that accept upwardly h2o and nutrients from soil. They are always fibrous and structurally are very similar to the roots of seed plants.

As in all other vascular plants, the sporophyte is the dominant phase or generation in the life cycle. The gametophytes of ferns, yet, are very different from those of seed plants. They are free-living and resemble liverworts, whereas those of seed plants develop within the spore wall and are dependent on the parent sporophyte for their diet. A fern gametophyte typically consists of:

• Prothallus: A dark-green, photosynthetic structure that is one jail cell thick, usually heart or kidney shaped, 3–10 mm long and 2–viii mm broad. The prothallus produces gametes by means of:
  • Antheridia: Small spherical structures that produce flagellate sperm.
  • Archegonia: A flask-shaped structure that produces a unmarried egg at the lesser, reached by the sperm past pond down the neck.
• Rhizoids: root-similar structures (non true roots) that consist of unmarried greatly elongated cells, that absorb water and mineral salts over the whole structure. Rhizoids anchor the prothallus to the soil.

Taxonomy [edit]

Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (eastward.g. Polypodium) and Musci (mosses).^{[13] [14] [xv]} By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera,^[16] and has progressively increased since (see Schuettpelz et al (2018) Figure ane). Ferns were traditionally classified in the class Filices, and later in a Segmentation of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta. Pteridophyta is no longer recognised equally a valid taxon considering it is paraphyletic. The ferns are besides referred to equally Polypodiophyta or, when treated as a subdivision of Tracheophyta (vascular plants), Polypodiopsida, although this proper noun sometimes only refers to leptosporangiate ferns. Traditionally, all of the spore producing vascular plants were informally denominated the pteridophytes, rendering the term synonymous with ferns and fern allies. This can exist disruptive because members of the division Pteridophyta were as well denominated pteridophytes (sensu stricto).

Traditionally, three discrete groups have been denominated ferns: two groups of eusporangiate ferns, the families Ophioglossaceae (adder's tongues, moonworts, and grape ferns) and Marattiaceae; and the leptosporangiate ferns. The Marattiaceae are a primitive group of tropical ferns with large, fleshy rhizomes and are at present thought to be a sibling taxon to the leptosporangiate ferns. Several other groups of species were considered fern allies: the clubmosses, spikemosses, and quillworts in Lycopodiophyta; the whisk ferns of Psilotaceae; and the horsetails of Equisetaceae. Since this grouping is polyphyletic, the term fern allies should be abandoned, except in a historical context.^[17] More recent genetic studies demonstrated that the Lycopodiophyta are more distantly related to other vascular plants, having radiated evolutionarily at the base of operations of the tracheophyte clade, while both the whisk ferns and horsetails are as closely related to leptosporangiate ferns every bit the ophioglossoid ferns and Marattiaceae. In fact, the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns are demonstrably a clade, and the horsetails and Marattiaceae are arguably another clade.

Molecular phylogenetics [edit]

Smith et al. (2006) carried out the starting time higher-level pteridophyte classification published in the molecular phylogenetic era, and considered the ferns equally monilophytes, as follows:^[18]

• Division Tracheophyta (tracheophytes) - vascular plants
  • Sub division Euphyllophytina (euphyllophytes)
    • Infradivision Moniliformopses (monilophytes)
    • Infradivision Spermatophyta - seed plants, ~260,000 species
  • Subdivision Lycopodiophyta (lycophytes) - less than 1% of extant vascular plants

Molecular data, which remain poorly constrained for many parts of the plants' phylogeny, have been supplemented by morphological observations supporting the inclusion of Equisetaceae in the ferns, notably relating to the construction of their sperm and peculiarities of their roots.^[18] However, there remained differences of opinion about the placement of the genus Equisetum (see Equisetopsida for further discussion). One possible solution was to denominate merely the leptosporangiate ferns equally "true ferns" while denominating the other three groups as fern allies. In exercise, numerous nomenclature schemes have been proposed for ferns and fern allies, and there has been niggling consensus amongst them.

The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called "true ferns".^[19] This group includes nearly plants familiarly known every bit ferns. Modernistic research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Rai and Graham (2010) broadly supported the primary groups, but queried their relationships, last that "at present perhaps the best that can exist said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well".^[20] Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns sensu lato, but likewise suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement.^[21] Other classifications have raised Ophioglossales to the rank of a 5th course, separating the whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns.^[21]

1 problem with the classification of ferns is that of cryptic species. A ambiguous species is a species that is morphologically like to some other species, but differs genetically in ways that prevent fertile interbreeding. A expert example of this is the currently designated species Asplenium trichomanes (maidenhair spleenwort). This is actually a species circuitous that includes distinct diploid and tetraploid races. At that place are minor just unclear morphological differences between the two groups, which adopt distinctly differing habitats. In many cases such as this, the species complexes have been separated into separate species, thus raising the total number of species of ferns. Many more cryptic species may be yet to exist discovered and designated.

Phylogeny [edit]

The ferns are related to other college order taxa as shown in the following cladogram:^{[17] [22] [23] [two]}

Nomenclature and subdivision [edit]

The classification of Smith et al. (2006) treated ferns as 4 classes:^{[18] [24]}

• Equisetopsida (Sphenopsida) one order, Equisetales (Horsetails) ~ 15 species
• Psilotopsida 2 orders (whisk ferns and ophioglossoid ferns) ~92 species
• Marattiopsida one order, Marattiales ~ 150 species
• Polypodiopsida (Filicopsida) 7 orders (leptosporangiate ferns) ~ 9,000 species

In improver they defined 11 orders and 37 families.^[18] That arrangement was a consensus of a number of studies, and was further refined.^{[21] [25]} The phylogenetic relationships are shown in the following cladogram (to the level of orders).^{[xviii] [26] [21]} This division into iv major clades was then confirmed using morphology lone.^[27]

Subsequently, Chase and Reveal considered both lycopods and ferns every bit subclasses of a class Equisetopsida (Embryophyta) encompassing all land plants. This is referred to as Equisetopsida sensu lato to distinguish it from the narrower utilise to refer to horsetails solitary, Equisetopsida sensu stricto. They placed the lycopods into subclass Lycopodiidae and the ferns, keeping the term monilophytes, into 5 subclasses, Equisetidae, Ophioglossidae, Psilotidae, Marattiidae and Polypodiidae, past dividing Smith's Psilotopsida into its 2 orders and elevating them to subclass (Ophioglossidae and Psilotidae).^[23] Christenhusz et al.^[a] (2011) followed this utilise of subclasses but recombined Smith'due south Psilotopsida as Ophioglossidae, giving 4 subclasses of ferns again.^[28]

Christenhusz and Chase (2014) developed a new classification of ferns and lycopods. They used the term Polypodiophyta for the ferns, subdivided like Smith et al. into iv groups (shown with equivalents in the Smith system), with 21 families, approximately 212 genera and 10,535 species;^[17]

• Equisetidae (=Equisetopsida) - monotypic (Equisetales, Equisetaceae, Equisetum) horsetails ~ twenty species)
• Ophioglossidae (=Psilotopsida) - 2 monotypic orders ~ 92 species
• Marattiidae (=Marattiopsida) - one monotypic club (Marattiales, Marattiaceae, ii subfamilies) ~ 130 species
• Polypodiidae (=Polypodiopsida) - seven orders

This was a considerable reduction in the number of families from the 37 in the system of Smith et al., since the approach was more that of lumping rather than splitting. For case a number of families were reduced to subfamilies. Subsequently, a consensus group was formed, the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (PPG), analogous to the Flowering plant Phylogeny Group, publishing their showtime complete nomenclature in November 2016. They recognise ferns equally a grade, the Polypodiopsida, with four subclasses equally described by Christenhusz and Chase, and which are phylogenetically related as in this cladogram:^[two]

In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the Polypodiopsida consist of iv subclasses, eleven orders, 48 families, 319 genera, and an estimated ten,578 species.^[29] Thus Polypodiopsida in the wide sense (sensu lato) as used by the PPG (Polypodiopsida sensu PPG I) needs to be distinguished from the narrower usage (sensu stricto) of Smith et al. (Polypodiopsida sensu Smith et al.)^[2] Nomenclature of ferns remains unresolved and controversial with competing viewpoints (splitting vs lumping) between the systems of the PPG on the one manus and Christenhusz and Chase on the other, respectively. In 2018, Christenhusz and Chase explicitly argued against recognizing every bit many genera equally PPG I.^{[xv] [30]}

Comparison of fern subdivisions in some classifications

Smith et al. (2006)[18]	Chase & Reveal (2009)[23]	Christenhusz et al. (2011)[28]	Christenhusz & Chase (2014, 2018)[17] [31]	PPG I (2016)[two]
ferns (no rank)	monilophytes (no rank)	ferns (monilophytes) (no rank)	ferns (Polypodiophyta) (no rank)	Class Polypodiopsida
Form Equisetopsida	Bracket Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae	Subclass Equisetidae
Class Psilotopsida	Subclass Ophioglossidae   Subclass Psilotidae	Subclass Ophioglossidae	Subclass Ophioglossidae	Bracket Ophioglossidae
Course Marattiopsida	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae	Subclass Marattiidae
Class Polypodiopsida	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae	Subclass Polypodiidae

Evolution and biogeography [edit]

Fern-like taxa (Wattieza) outset appear in the fossil record in the centre Devonian menses, ca. 390 Mya. By the Triassic, the first testify of ferns related to several modern families appeared. The great fern radiation occurred in the belatedly Cretaceous, when many modernistic families of ferns first appeared.^{[32] [1] [33] [34]} Ferns evolved to cope with depression-light conditions present under the canopy of angiosperms.

Remarkably, the photoreceptor neochrome in the two orders Cyatheales and Polypodiales, integral to their accommodation to low-light weather, was obtained via horizontal gene transfer from hornworts, a bryophyte lineage.^[35]

Due to the very large genome seen in most ferns, information technology was suspected they might had gone through whole genome duplications, simply Dna sequencing has shown that their genome size is caused past the accumulation of mobile DNA similar transposons and other genetic elements that infect genomes and get copied over and over again.^[36]

Distribution and habitat [edit]

Ferns are widespread in their distribution, with the greatest richness in the tropics and least in arctic areas. The greatest diversity occurs in tropical rainforests.^[37] New Zealand, for which the fern is a symbol, has about 230 species, distributed throughout the land.^[38]

Environmental [edit]

Ferns at Muir Woods, California

Fern species live in a broad variety of habitats, from remote mountain elevations, to dry desert stone faces, bodies of water or open up fields. Ferns in general may be thought of as largely being specialists in marginal habitats, often succeeding in places where various environmental factors limit the success of flowering plants. Some ferns are among the world'south most serious weed species, including the bracken fern growing in the Scottish highlands, or the mosquito fern (Azolla) growing in tropical lakes, both species forming big aggressively spreading colonies. There are four particular types of habitats that ferns are found in: moist, shady forests; crevices in stone faces, specially when sheltered from the full sun; acrid wetlands including bogs and swamps; and tropical trees, where many species are epiphytes (something similar a quarter to a third of all fern species).^[39]

Especially the epiphytic ferns take turned out to be hosts of a huge diversity of invertebrates. It is assumed that bird's-nest ferns solitary comprise up to one-half the invertebrate biomass within a hectare of rainforest canopy.^[40]

Many ferns depend on associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Many ferns grow only inside specific pH ranges; for example, the climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum) of eastern North America will grow only in moist, intensely acid soils, while the bulblet float fern (Cystopteris bulbifera), with an overlapping range, is constitute only on limestone.

The spores are rich in lipids, poly peptide and calories, so some vertebrates eat these. The European woodmouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) has been establish to eat the spores of Culcita macrocarpa, and the bullfinch (Pyrrhula murina) and the New Zealand bottom curt-tailed bat (Mystacina tuberculata) also consume fern spores.^[41]

Life cycle [edit]

Ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophytes by having true leaves (megaphylls), which are frequently pinnate. They differ from seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) in reproducing by means of spores and lacking flowers and seeds. Similar all land plants, they have a life cycle referred to equally alternation of generations, characterized by alternate diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic phases. The diploid sporophyte has 2n paired chromosomes, where due north varies from species to species. The haploid gametophyte has n unpaired chromosomes, i.e. half the number of the sporophyte. The gametophyte of ferns is a complimentary-living organism, whereas the gametophyte of the gymnosperms and angiosperms is dependent on the sporophyte.

The life wheel of a typical fern proceeds as follows:

1. A diploid sporophyte phase produces haploid spores past meiosis (a process of jail cell division which reduces the number of chromosomes by a one-half).
2. A spore grows into a gratis-living haploid gametophyte past mitosis (a procedure of cell division which maintains the number of chromosomes). The gametophyte typically consists of a photosynthetic prothallus.
3. The gametophyte produces gametes (frequently both sperm and eggs on the aforementioned prothallus) by mitosis.
4. A mobile, flagellate sperm fertilizes an egg that remains attached to the prothallus.
5. The fertilized egg is now a diploid zygote and grows by mitosis into a diploid sporophyte (the typical fern plant).

Uses [edit]

Ferns are not as of import economically as seed plants, but have considerable importance in some societies. Some ferns are used for nutrient, including the fiddleheads of Pteridium aquilinum (bracken), Matteuccia struthiopteris (ostrich fern), and Osmundastrum cinnamomeum (cinnamon fern). Diplazium esculentum is also used in the tropics (for example in budu pakis, a traditional dish of Brunei^[42]) as nutrient. Tubers from the "para", Ptisana salicina (king fern) are a traditional food in New Zealand and the South Pacific. Fern tubers were used for food 30,000 years agone in Europe.^{[43] [44]} Fern tubers were used by the Guanches to make gofio in the Canary Islands. Ferns are mostly not known to be poisonous to humans.^[45] Licorice fern rhizomes were chewed past the natives of the Pacific Northwest for their flavor.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Ferns of the genus Azolla, normally known as water fern or mosquito ferns are very small, floating plants that do non resemble ferns. The mosquito ferns are used as a biological fertilizer in the rice paddies of southeast Asia, taking advantage of their ability to gear up nitrogen from the air into compounds that tin then exist used by other plants.

Ferns have proved resistant to phytophagous insects. The gene that limited the poly peptide Tma12 in an edible fern, Tectaria macrodonta, has been transferred to cotton plants, which became resistant to whitefly infestations.^[46]

Many ferns are grown in horticulture equally landscape plants, for cut foliage and as houseplants, especially the Boston fern (Nephrolepis exaltata) and other members of the genus Nephrolepis. The bird's nest fern (Asplenium nidus) is also popular, as are the staghorn ferns (genus Platycerium). Perennial (too known as hardy) ferns planted in gardens in the northern hemisphere also take a considerable following.^{[ citation needed ]}

Several ferns, such as bracken^[47] and Azolla ^[48] species are noxious weeds or invasive species. Further examples include Japanese climbing fern (Lygodium japonicum), sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) and Giant water fern (Salvinia molesta), one of the globe'south worst aquatic weeds.^{[ citation needed ] [49]} The of import fossil fuel coal consists of the remains of primitive plants, including ferns.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Ferns have been studied and found to be useful in the removal of heavy metals, especially arsenic, from the soil. Other ferns with some economic significance include:^{[ citation needed ]}

• Dryopteris filix-mas (male fern), used as a vermifuge, and formerly in the The states Pharmacopeia; besides, this fern accidentally sprouting in a bottle resulted in Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward's 1829 invention of the terrarium or Wardian case
• Rumohra adiantiformis (floral fern), extensively used in the florist merchandise
• Microsorum pteropus (Java fern), one of the most pop freshwater aquarium plants.
• Osmunda regalis (purple fern) and Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon fern), the root fiber beingness used horticulturally; the fiddleheads of O. cinnamomea are as well used as a cooked vegetable
• Matteuccia struthiopteris (ostrich fern), the fiddleheads used every bit a cooked vegetable in North America
• Pteridium aquilinum and Pteridium esculentum (bracken), the fiddleheads used every bit a cooked vegetable in Nippon and are believed to exist responsible for the loftier rate of stomach cancer in Nihon. It is likewise i of the world's most important agricultural weeds, particularly in the British highlands, and often poisons cattle and horses.
• Diplazium esculentum (vegetable fern), a source of food for some societies
• Pteris vittata (restriction fern), used to blot arsenic from the soil
• Polypodium glycyrrhiza (licorice fern), roots chewed for their pleasant flavor
• Tree ferns, used every bit building cloth in some tropical areas
• Cyathea cooperi (Australian tree fern), an important invasive species in Hawaii
• Ceratopteris richardii, a model establish for teaching and research, often called C-fern

Culture [edit]

Blätter des Manns Walfarn. by Alois Auer, Vienna: Majestic Press Role, 1853

Pteridologist [edit]

The study of ferns and other pteridophytes is chosen pteridology. A pteridologist is a specialist in the study of pteridophytes in a broader sense that includes the more distantly related lycophytes.

Pteridomania [edit]

Pteridomania is a term for the Victorian era craze of fern collecting and fern motifs in decorative art including pottery, glass, metals, textiles, wood, printed newspaper, and sculpture "actualization on everything from christening presents to gravestones and memorials." The fashion for growing ferns indoors led to the development of the Wardian case, a glazed cabinet that would exclude air pollutants and maintain the necessary humidity.^[50]

The stale course of ferns was too used in other arts, existence used every bit a stencil or directly inked for use in a design. The botanical work, The Ferns of Peachy United kingdom and Republic of ireland, is a notable case of this type of nature printing. The procedure, patented past the artist and publisher Henry Bradbury, impressed a specimen on to a soft lead plate. The starting time publication to demonstrate this was Alois Auer's The Discovery of the Nature Printing-Process.

Fern bars were popular in America in the 1970s and 80s.

Folklore [edit]

Ferns effigy in folklore, for example in legends about mythical flowers or seeds.^[51] In Slavic sociology, ferns are believed to blossom once a year, during the Ivan Kupala night. Although alleged to be exceedingly difficult to detect, anyone who sees a fern blossom is thought to be guaranteed to exist happy and rich for the rest of their life. Similarly, Finnish tradition holds that i who finds the seed of a fern in bloom on Midsummer night will, by possession of information technology, exist guided and be able to travel invisibly to the locations where eternally blazing Will o' the wisps called aarnivalkea mark the spot of hidden treasure. These spots are protected past a spell that prevents anyone merely the fern-seed holder from ever knowing their locations.^[52] In the Usa, ferns are idea to accept magical backdrop such equally a dried fern can be thrown into hot coals of a fire to exorcise evil spirits, or smoke from a called-for fern is thought to drive away snakes and such creatures.^[53]

New Zealand [edit]

Ferns are the national keepsake of New Zealand and characteristic on its passport and in the design of its national airline, Air New Zealand, and its rugby team, the All Blacks.

Organisms confused with ferns [edit]

Misnomers [edit]

Several not-fern plants (and even animals) are called ferns and are sometimes confused with ferns. These include:

• Asparagus fern—This may apply to one of several species of the monocot genus Asparagus, which are flowering plants.
• Sweetfern—A flowering shrub of the genus Comptonia.
• Air fern—A group of animals called hydrozoan that are distantly related to jellyfish and corals. They are harvested, dried, dyed green, and then sold as a plant that can live on air. While information technology may look like a fern, information technology is but the skeleton of this colonial animate being.
• Fern bush—Chamaebatiaria millefolium—a rose family shrub with fern-similar leaves.
• Fern tree—Jacaranda mimosifolia—an ornamental tree of the social club Lamiales.
• Fern leaf tree—Filicium decipiens—an ornamental tree of the order Sapindales.

Fern-similar flowering plants [edit]

Some flowering plants such every bit palms and members of the carrot family accept pinnate leaves that somewhat resemble fern fronds. However, these plants have fully adult seeds contained in fruits, rather than the microscopic spores of ferns.

Gallery [edit]

• 

  Fern growing on a wall

• 

• 

• 

  Tree ferns, probably Dicksonia antarctica

• 

• 

  A young, newly formed fern frond

• 

  A tree fern unrolling a new frond

• 

  Leaf of fern

• 

• 

• 

  Sporangia on a leaflet

• 

Encounter also [edit]

• British Pteridological Society
• Chirosia betuleti - Fern gall
• Fern spike
• Fern sports
• Paisley (design)
• Pteridophyte
• Silverish fern flag

Notes [edit]

1. ^ President, International Clan of Pteridologists

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Stein et al 2007.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group 2016.
3. ^ a: Adiantum capillus-veneris (Pteridaceae); b: Sceptridium japonicum (Ophioglossaceae); c: Hypolepis punctata (Dennstaedtiaceae); d: Lygodium japonicum (Lygodiaceae); e: Equisetum hyemale (Equisetaceae); f: Woodwardia orientalis (Blechnaceae); thousand: Azolla filiculoides and Salvinia natans (Salviniaceae); h: Dryopteris erythrosora (Dryopteridaceae); i: Deparia japonica (Athyriaceae); j: Psilotum nudum (Psilotaceae); thousand: Odontosoria chinensis (Lindsaeaceae); l: Dicranopteris linearis (Gleicheniaceae); thou: Phegopteris decursivepinnata (Thelypteridaceae); n: Asplenium nidus (Aspleniaceae); o: Osmunda japonica (Osmundaceae); p: Davallia mariesii (Davalliaceae); q: Hymenophyllum sp. (Hymenophyllaceae); r: Matteuccia struthiopteris (Onocleaceae); s: Lemmaphyllum microphyllum (Polypodiaceae); t: Angiopteris lygodiifolia (Marattiidae) and u: Marsilea quadrifolia (Marsileaceae).
4. ^ Mauseth, James D. (September 2008). Botany: an Introduction to Establish Biological science. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN978-i-4496-4720-ix.
5. ^ Fernández, Helena; Kumar, Ashwani; Revilla, Maria Angeles (xi November 2010). Working with Ferns: Problems and Applications. Springer Science & Business concern Media. ISBN978-1-4419-7162-3.
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Bibliography [edit]

Books and theses [edit]

• Christenhusz, Maarten M.J.; Fay, Michael; Byng, James W. (2018). The Global Flora: Special Edition: GLOVAP Nomenclature Part 1. Found Gateway Ltd. ISBN978-0-9929993-vi-0.
• Linnaeus, Carl (1753). "Cryptogamia: Filices Musci". Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Vol. 1. Stockholm: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. pp. 1061–1100, 1100–1130. , run across also Species Plantarum
• Lord, Thomas R. (2006). Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania. Indiana, PA: Pinelands Press. Ferns and Fern Allies of Pennsylvania - Thomas Reeves Lord
• Moran, Robbin C. (2004). A Natural History of Ferns. Portland, OR: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-667-1.
• Ranker, Tom A.; Haufler, Christopher H. (2008). Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-87411-3.
• Schuettpelz, Eric (2007). "Table ane". The development and diversification of epiphytic ferns (PDF) (PhD thesis). Duke University.
• Swartz, Olof (1806). Synopsis filicum: earum genera et species systematice complectens: adjectis lycopodineis, et descriptionibus novarum et rariorum specierum: cum tabulis aeneis quinque. Kiliae: Impensis Bibliopolii novi academici.

Journal manufactures [edit]

• Berry, Chris (2009). "The Middle Devonian plant collections of Francois Stockmans reconsidered". Geologica Belgica. 12 (i–2): 25–30.
• Bomfleur, B.; McLoughlin, S.; Vajda, 5. (20 March 2014). "Fossilized Nuclei and Chromosomes Reveal 180 1000000 Years of Genomic Stasis in Royal Ferns". Science. 343 (6177): 1376–1377. Bibcode:2014Sci...343.1376B. doi:10.1126/science.1249884. PMID 24653037. S2CID 38248823.
• Cantino, Philip D.; Doyle, James A.; Graham, Sean W.; Judd, Walter S.; Olmstead, Richard G.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Donoghue, Michael J. (ane August 2007). "Towards a Phylogenetic Classification of Tracheophyta". Taxon. 56 (3): 822. doi:10.2307/25065865. JSTOR 25065865.
• Hunt, Mark W. & Reveal, James L. (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the country plants to accompany APG Iii". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Gild. 161 (2): 122–127. doi:ten.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.10.
• Christenhusz, Maarten JM & Byng, J. Westward. (2016). "The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase". Phytotaxa. Magnolia Printing. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:ten.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
• Christenhusz, Thou. J. K.; Zhang, X. C.; Schneider, H. (18 February 2011). "A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns". Phytotaxa. 19 (1): vii. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.xix.ane.2.
• Christenhusz, Maarten J.M.; Chase, Marking W. (2014). "Trends and concepts in fern classification". Annals of Phytology. 113 (4): 571–594. doi:10.1093/aob/mct299. PMC3936591. PMID 24532607.
• Christenhusz, Maarten J.M.; Chase, Mark West. (ane June 2018). "PPG recognises too many fern genera". Taxon. 67 (iii): 481–487. doi:ten.12705/673.2.
• May, Lenore Wile (1978). "The economic uses and associated sociology of ferns and fern allies". The Botanical Review. 44 (iv): 491–528. doi:10.1007/BF02860848. S2CID 42101599.
• Melan, Thou. A.; Whittier, D. P. (1990). "Furnishings of Inorganic Nitrogen Sources on Spore Germination and Gametophyte Growth in Botrychium Dissectum". Plant, Cell and Environment. xiii (five): 477–82. doi:x.1111/j.1365-3040.1990.tb01325.x.
• Pryer, Kathleen Yard.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond; Wolf, Paul Grand.; Hunt, Jeffrey Due south.; Sipes, Sedonia D. (2001). "Horsetails and ferns are a monophyletic grouping and the closest living relatives to seed plants". Nature. 409 (6820): 618–622. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..618S. doi:10.1038/35054555. PMID 11214320. S2CID 4367248.
• Pryer, Kathleen M.; Schuettpelz, Eric; Wolf, Paul G.; Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Cranfill, Raymond (2004). "Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1582–1598. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582. PMID 21652310. Archived from the original on 26 August 2010. Retrieved 8 February 2006.
• Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group (Nov 2016). "A community-derived classification for extant lycophytes and ferns". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 54 (6): 563–603. doi:10.1111/jse.12229. S2CID 39980610.
• Schneider, Harald; Smith, Alan R.; Pryer, Kathleen M. (1 July 2009). "Is Morphology Really at Odds with Molecules in Estimating Fern Phylogeny?". Systematic Botany. 34 (3): 455–475. doi:10.1600/036364409789271209. S2CID 85855934.
• Schuettpelz, Eric; Rouhan, Germinal; Pryer, Kathleen M.; Rothfels, Carl J.; Prado, Jefferson; Sundue, Michael A.; Windham, Michael D.; Moran, Robbin C.; Smith, Alan R. (1 June 2018). "Are at that place too many fern genera?". Taxon. 67 (3): 473–480. doi:10.12705/673.i.
• Smith, Alan R.; Kathleen 1000. Pryer; Eric Schuettpelz; Petra Korall; Harald Schneider; Paul Yard. Wolf (2006). "A classification for extant ferns" (PDF). Taxon. 55 (3): 705–731. doi:10.2307/25065646. JSTOR 25065646.
• Stein, W. E.; Mannolini, F.; Hernick, Fifty. V.; Landling, E.; Drupe, C. M. (2007). "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the Earth'south primeval wood stumps at Gilboa". Nature. 446 (7138): 904–907. Bibcode:2007Natur.446..904S. doi:ten.1038/nature05705. PMID 17443185. S2CID 2575688.
• Radoslaw Janusz Walkowiak (2017). "Nomenclature of Pteridophytes - Short classification of the ferns" (PDF). IEA Paper. doi:x.13140/RG.2.ii.29934.20809.
• Underwood, Fifty. M. (1903). "The early writers on ferns and their collections.— I. Linnaeus, 1707-1778". Torreya. 3 (10): 145–150. ISSN 0096-3844. JSTOR 40594126.

Websites [edit]

• McCausland, Jim (22 February 2019). "Rediscover ferns". Garden plants. Sunset Mag. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
• "Pteridopsida: Fossil Record". Plants: Pteridopsida. Academy of California Museum of Paleontology. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
• "Classifying and identifying ferns". Science Learning Hub. The University of Waikato. three September 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
• Mickel, John T.; Wagner, Warren H.; Gifford, Ernest M.; et al. (4 Feb 2019). "Fern". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 24 November 2019.
• Hassler, Michael; Schmitt, Bernd (ii November 2019). "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World". World Ferns. Botanical Garden of the Karlsruhe Institute of Engineering. Retrieved 25 Nov 2019.
• Pryer, Kathleen Thousand; Smith, Alan R; Rothfels, Carl (2009). "Polypodiopsida". Tree of Life.
• A classification of the ferns and their allies
• A fern book bibliography
• Register of fossil Pteridophyta
• L. Watson and G.J. Dallwitz (2004 onwards). The Ferns (Filicopsida) of the British Isles. Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Ferns and Pteridomania in Victorian Scotland
• Non-seed plant images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
• "American Fern Society"
• "British Pteridological Society"
• Images of ferns of Hawaii

External links [edit]

Ferns Belong To Which Phylum,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern

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